Gravestones and Childhood [Artifacts]

In 17th-century New England, Puritan beliefs about "infant depravity" (born with "original sin") generated anxieties about "eternal damnation" that shaped methods of childrearing and notions of death. Puritan beliefs can be "read" on the gravestones often made out of dark grey slate. The standard three-lobed shape of early Puritan gravestones reflected the belief that to enter eternity the soul passed through arches and portals. The primary motifs included skulls (winged "death's heads"), skeletons, hourglasses, bones, scythes, and coffins. Upper-case lettering lent authority to bold inscriptions. Ligatures (e.g., combining letters into words) saved space. Stone carvers used abbreviations and raised letters especially at the far right margin to make words fit on to a line.

By the early 18th century Enlightenment ideas about children's innocence, natural impulses, and malleability impacted perceptions of children and methods of child rearing. In addition to the changing material culture of children's lives, were varying modes of representing death.

Steadily (albeit unevenly) over the course of the 18th century, there were significant changes in the shape, height, design, inscription, and composition (e.g., sandstone) of tombstones. The hand-carved death's skulls were increasingly replaced by winged faces representing resurrection and ever-lasting life. Smiling angels, sentimentalized urns, winged cherubs, and natural objects (birds, fruit, willows) were carved on the gravestones of children whose lives were cut short. Inscriptions gradually changed from the stark Puritan style, "HERE LYETH YE BODY OF" to "In Memory of." In that semantic shift, "lyeth" became "lyes" and finally, "lies." Ligatures gave way to unabbreviated words, verse, and Biblical quotations inscribed in upper and lower case with a liberal use of the elongated "S."

Compare this gravestone to those from the 17th century as well as later ones using the on-line Farber Gravestone Collection. In what ways does Sarah Sanford's 1722 slate (21 inch) gravestone from Newport, Rhode Island, reflect the transition between Puritan notions and Enlightenment ideals of childhood? How does the line ("mouthmark") above the skull's teeth change the expression of the death's head? In what ways does the placement of the skull's teeth make them look more like a neck decoration?

"Sanford, Sarah," The Farber Gravestone Collection: American Antiquarian Society, http://luna.davidrumsey.com:8280/luna/servlet/detail/FBC~100~1~1901~212261:Sanford,Sarah?sort=Name%2CDates&qvq=q:Sanford;sort:Name,Dates;lc:FBC~100~1&mi=0&trs=2 (accessed November 8, 2009). Annotated by Miriam Forman-Brunell.

Examination of Thomas Carrier, Jr. [Legal Document]

Thomas Carrier: aged 9

Thomas and Martha Carrier lived in Andover, MA , a town lying near to Salem and affected by the turmoil of the Salem Witch Trials. One week after Martha's children were examined by the Court, the accused witch was hung for her "crimes." Among the Carrier's four children, both Sarah and Thomas were also accused of witchcraft.

Thomas testified that he had only been a witch one week, when his mother forced him into her service. She took off all his clothes and dunked him in a nearby river. She then ordered him to torment the Wolcott, Phelps, and Putnam girls (the group of young women driving the Salem trials). Note that the same elements of analysis are present here, as in Sarah's testimony: the social dynamics of Salem, a developed understanding of Puritan religious elements, and some unique elements such as, the yellow bird. Where did it come from?

Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library, "Thomas Carrier", The Salem witchcraft papers, Volume 1 : verbatim transcripts of the legal documents of the Salem witchcraft outbreak of 1692, edited by Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, <a class="external" href="http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=BoySal1.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/oldsalem&tag=public&part=156&division=div2">http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=BoySal1.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/oldsalem&tag=public&part=156&division=div2</a> (accessed September 1, 2009).

Tom Rushford

281

text

en

Examination of Sarah Carrier [Legal Document]

Sarah Carrier: aged 7

Thomas and Martha Carrier lived in Andover, MA, a town near Salem caught up in the turmoil of the Salem Witch Trials. Martha Carrier was accused of witchcraft and hung (one week after her children were examined by the Court) for her "crimes." The Carrier's had four children, two of whom, Sarah and Thomas, were also accused of witchcraft.

Sarah's testimony contains several interesting details. For example, she relates that her mother brought her a book and commanded her to obedience, "baptizing" her (along with other children) to her service. She was given a spear to work her maleficia on others ("She said her mother baptized her, and her mother said when she baptized her, thou are mine for ever and ever and amen.”). This longest of the four testimonies, has several significant elements. First, the social dynamics of the Salem experience—all of these children note that they were "made" witches by their mothers (both of whom were accused themselves). Second, the source sheds light on the nature of Salem families and the relationships between children and parents. Third, Sarah's testimony (and those of the other children) also reflects a developed understanding of Puritan religious elements. Unpacking the source allows for a rich discussion of the agency of these (and other) Puritan children.

Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library, "Sarah Carrier", The Salem witchcraft papers, Volume 1 : verbatim transcripts of the legal documents of the Salem witchcraft outbreak of 1692, edited by Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, <a class="external" href="http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=BoySal1.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/oldsalem&tag=public&part=22&division=div1">http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=BoySal1.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/oldsalem&tag=public&part=22&division=div1</a> (accessed September 1, 2009).

Tom Rushford

281

text

en