"Who is the lady of Lofty mein
Who walks about with the air of a queen
And movement as steady as a Ford machine
Why sonny that's our matron

Who is busy as a big bumble bee
Getting us up promptly at reveille
And calling us down in a stinging hey
Why laddie that's our matron

Who is high mistress of this whole works
Sees that no loafer his duty shirks
And about the place no deadly germ lurks
You're right lad that's our matron

Who sends us out to do the chores
And makes us stop to close the doors
And downs our necks the castor oil flows
Why sure son that's our matron.

Who carries the worry of the whole red race
written in lines of care on her face
And smooths out troubles in every place
Right my son that's our matron

Merry Christmas 1917, Dedicated to Mrs. G by One of the Boys"

Nick and the Sparrow Hills

'Write then how in this place [the Sparrow Hills] the story of our lives, yours and mine, began to unfold….'
A Letter, 1833

Three years before the time I am speaking of we were walking on the banks of the Moskva at Luzhniki, that is, on the other side of the Sparrow Hills. At the river's edge we met a French tutor of our acquaintance in nothing but his shirt; he was panic-stricken and was shouting, 'He is drowning, he is drowning!' But before our friend had time to take off his shirt or put on his trousers a Ural Cossack ran down from the Sparrow Hills, dashed into the water, vanished, and a minute later reappeared with a frail man, whose head and arms were flopping about like clothes hung out in the wind. He laid him on the bank, saying, 'He'll still recover if we roll him about.'

The people standing round collected fifty roubles and offered it to the Cossak. The latter, without making faces over it, said very simply: 'It's a sin to take money for such a thing, and it was no trouble; come to think of it he weighs no more than a cat. We are poor people, though.' He added. 'Ask, we don't; but there, if people give, why not take? We are humbly thankful.' Then tying up the money in a handkerchief he went to graze his horses on the hill. My father asked his name and wrote about the incident the next day to Essen. Essen promoted him to be a non-commissioned officer. A few months later the Cossak came to see us and with him a pock-marked, bald German, smelling of scent and wearing a curled, fair wig; he came to thank us on behalf of the Cossak—it was the drowned man. From that time he took to coming to see us.

Karl Ivanovich Sonnenberg, that was his name, was at that time completing the German part of the education of two young rascals; from them he went to a landowner of Simbirsk, and from him to a distant relative of my father's. The boy, the care of whose health and German accent had been entrusted to him, and whom Sonnenberg called Nick, attracted me. There was something kind gentle and pensive: I was high-spirited but afraid to rag him.

About the time when my cousin went back to Korcheva, Nick's grandmother died; his mother he had lost in early childhood. There was a great upset in the house and Sonnenberg, who really had nothing to do, fussed about too, and imagined that he was run off his legs; he brought Nick in the morning and asked that he might remain with us for the rest of the day. Nick was sad and frightened; I suppose he had been fond of his grandmother.

…After we had been sitting still a little I suggested reading Schiller. I was surprised at the similarity of our tastes; he knew far more by heart than I did and knew precisely the passages I liked best; we closed the book and, so to speak, began sounding each other's sympathies.

From Möros who went with a dagger in his sleeve 'to free the city from the tyrant,' from Wilhelm tell who waited for Vogt on the narrow path at Küsznacht, the transition to Nicholas and the Fourteenth of December was easy. These thoughts and these comparisons were not new to Nick; he, too, knew Pushkin's and Ryleyev's unpublished poems. The contrast between him and the empty-headed boys I had occasionally met was striking.

Not long before, walking near the Prenensjy Ponds, full of my Bouchot, terrorism, I had explained to a companion of my age the justice of the execution of Louis XVI.

'Quite so,' observed the youthful Prince O., 'but you know he was God's anointed!'

I looked at him with compassion, ceased to care for him and never asked to go and see him again.

There were no such barriers with Nick: his heart beat as mine did. He, too, had cast off from the grim conservative shore, and we had but to shove off together, and almost from the first day we resolved to work in the interests of the Tsarevich Constantine!

Before that day we had few long conversations. Karl Ivanovich pestered us like an autumn fly and spoilt every conversation with his presence; he interfered in everything without understanding, made remarks, straightened Nick's shirt collar, was in a hurry to get home: in fact, was detestable. After a month we could not pass two days without seeing each other or writing a letter; with all the impulsiveness of my nature I attached myself more and more to Nick, while he had a quiet deep love for me.

From the very beginning our friendship was to take a serious tone. I do not remember that mischievous pranks were our foremost interest, particularly when we were alone. Of course we did not sit still: our age came into its own, and we laughed and played the fool, teased Sonnenberg and played bows and arrows in our courtyard; but at the bottom of it all there was something very different from idle companionship. Besides our being of the same age, besides our 'chemical affinity,' we were united by the faith that bound us. Nothing in the world so purifies and ennobles early youth, nothing keeps it so safe as a passionate interest in the whole of humanity. We respected our future in ourselves, we looked at each other as 'chosen vessels,' predestined.

Nick and I often walked out into the country. We had our favourite places, the Sparrow Hills, the fields beyond the Dragomilovsky Gate. He would come with Sonnenberg to fetch me at six or seven in the morning, and if I were asleep would throw sand and little pebbles at my window. I would wake up smiling and hasten out to him.

These walks had been instituted by the indefatigable Karl Ivanovich.

In the old-fashioned patriarchal education of Ogarëv, Sonnenber plays the part of Biron. When he made his appearance the influence of the old male nurse who had looked after the boy was put aside; the disconnected oligarchy of the hall were forced against the grain to silence, knowing that there was no overcoming the damned German who fed at the master's table. Sonnenberg made violent changes in the old order of things. The old man who had been nurse positively grew tearful when he learnt that the wretched German had taken the young master himself to buy ready-made boots at a shop! Sonnenberg's revolution, like Peter I's, was distinguished by a military character even in the most peaceful matters. It does not follow from that that Karl Ivanovich' thin little shoulders had ever been adorned with epaulettes; but nature has so made the German that if he does not reach the slovenliness and sans-géne of a philologist or a theologian, he is inevitably of a military mind even though he be a civilian. By virtue of his peculiarity Karl Ivanovich liked tight fitting clothes, buttoned up and cut with a waist; by virtue of it he was a strict observer of his own rules, and, if he proposed to get up at six o' clock in the morning, he would get Nick up at one minute to six, and in no case later than one minute past, and would go out into the open air with him.

The Sparrow Hills, at the foot of which Karl Ivanovich had been so nearly drowned, soon became our 'sacred hills.'

One day after dinner my father proposed to drive out into the country. Ogarëv was with us and my father invited him and Sonnenberg to go too. These expeditions were not a joking matter. Before reaching the town gate we had to drive for an hour or more in a four-seated carriage 'built by Joachim,' which had not prevented it from becoming disgracefully shabby in its fifteen years of service, peaceful as they had been, and from being, as it always had been, heavier than a siege gun. The four horses of different sizes and colours with sweat and foam within a quarter of an hour; the coachman Avdey was forbidden to let this happen, and so had no choice but to drive at a walk. The windows were usually up, however hot it might be; and with all this we had indifferently oppressive supervision of my father and the restlessly fussy and irritation supervision of Karl Ivanovich. But we gladly put up with everything for the sake of being together.

At Luzhniki we crossed the river Moskva in a boat at the very pot where the Cossak had pulled Karl Ivanovich out of the water. My father walked, bent and morose as always; beside him Karl Ivanovich tripped along, entertaining him with gossip and scandal. We went on in front of them, and getting far ahead ran up to the Sparrow Hills at the spot where the first stone of Vitberg's temple was laid.

Flushed and breathless, we stood there mopping our faces. The sun was setting, the cupolas glittered, beneath the hill the city extended farther than the eye could reach; a fresh breeze blew on our faces, we stood leaning against each other and, suddenly embracing, vowed in sight of all Moscow to sacrifice our lives to the struggle we had chosen.

This scene may strike others as very affected and theatrical, and yet twenty-six years afterwards I am moved to tears as I recall it; there was a sacred sincerity in it, and our whole life has proved this. But apparently a like destiny defeats all vows made on that spot; Alexander was sincere, too, when he laid the first stone of that temple, which as Joseph II said (although then mistakenly) at the laying of the first stone in some town in Novorossiya, was destined to be the last.

We did not know all the strength of the foe with whom we were entering into battle, but we took up the fight. That strength broke much in us, but it was not that strength that shattered us, and we did not surrender to it in spite of all its blows. The wounds received from it were honourable. Jacob's strained thigh was the sign that he had wrestled in the night with God.

From that day the Sparrow Hills became a place of worship for us and once or twice a year we went there, and always by ourselves. There, five years later, Ogarëv asked me timidly and shyly whether I believed in his poetic talent, and wrote to me afterwards (1883) from his country house: 'I have come away and feel sad, as sad as I have never been before. And it's all the Sparrow Hills. For a long time I hid my enthusiasm in myself; shyness or something else, I don't myself know what, prevented me from uttering it; but on the Sparrow Hills that enthusiasm was not burdened with solitude: you shared it with me and those moments have been unforgettable; like memories of past happiness they have followed me on my way, while round me I saw nothing but forest; it was all so blue, dark blue and in my soul was darkness.

'Write then,' he concluded, 'how in this place' (that is, on the Sparrow Hills) 'the story of our lives, yours and mine began to unfold.'

Five more years passed. I was far from the Sparrow Hills, but near me their Prometheus, A. L. Vitberg, stood, austere and gloomy. In 1842, returning to Moscow, I again visited the Sparrow Hills, and once more we stood on the site of foundation stone and gazed at the same view, two together, but the other was not Nick.

Since 1827 we had not been parted. In every memory of that time, general and particular, he with his boyish features and his love for me was everywhere in the foreground. Early could be seen in him that sign of grace which is vouchsafed to few, whether for woe or for bliss I know not, but certainly in order not to be one of the crowd. A large portrait of Orgarëv as he was at that time (1827-8), painted in oils, remained for long afterwards in his father's house. In later days I often stood before it and gazed at him. He is shown with an open shirt collar; the painter has wonderfully caught the luxuriant chestnut hair, the undefined, youthful beauty of his irregular features and his rather swarthy colouring; there was a pensiveness in the portrait that gave promise of powerful thought; an unaccountable melancholy and extreme gentleness shone out from his big grey eyes that suggested the future stature of a mighty spirit; such indeed he grew to be. This portrait, presented to me, was taken by a woman who was a stranger; perhaps these lines will meet her eyes and she will send it to me.

I do not know why the memories of first love are given such precedence over the memories of youthful friendship. The fragrance of first love lies in the fact that it forgets the difference of the sexes, that it passionate friendship. On the other hand, friendship between the young has all the ardour of love and all its character, the same delicate fear of touching on its feelings with a word, the same mistrust of self and absolute devotion, the same agony at separation, and the same jealous desire for exclusive affection.

I had long loved Nick and loved him passionately, but had not been able to resolve to call him my friend, and when he was spending the summer at Kuntsevo I wrote to him at the end of a letter: 'Whether your friend or not, I do not yet know.' He first used the second person singular in writing to me and used to call me his Agathon after Karamzin, while I called him my Ralphael after Schiller.

You will smile, perhaps, but let it be a mild, good-natured smile, such as one smiles when one thinking of the time when on was fifteen. Or would it not be better to muse over the question, 'Was I like that when I was blossoming out?' and to bless your fate if you have had youth (merely being young is not enough for this), an to bless it doubly if you had a friend then.

The language of that period seems affected and bookish to us now; we have become unaccustomed to its vague enthusiasm, its confused fervour that passes suddenly into languid tenderness or childish laughter. It would be as absurd in a man of thirty as the celebrated Bettina will schlafen, but in its proper time this language of youth, this jargon de la puberté, this change of the psychological voice is very sincere; even the shade of bookishness is natural to the age of theoretical knowledge and practical ignorance.

Schiller remained our favourite. The characters of his dramas were living persons for us; we analysed them, loved and hated them, not as poetic creations but as living men. Moreover we saw ourselves in them. I wrote to Nick, somewhat troubled by his being too fond of Fiesco, that behind every Fiesco stands his Verrina. My ideal was Karl Moor, but soon I was false to him and went over to the Marquis of Posa. I imagined in a hundred variations how I would speak to Nicholas, and how afterwards he would send me to the mines or the scaffold. It is a strange thins that almost all our day-dreams ended in Siberia or the scaffold and hardly ever in triumph; can this be the way the Russian imagination turns, or is it the effect of Petersburg with its five gallows and its penal servitude reflected on the young generation?

And so, Ogarëv, hand in hand we moved forward into life! Fearlessly and proudly we advanced, generously we responded to every challenge and single heartedly we surrendered to every inclination. The path we chose was no easy one; we have never left it for one moment: wounded and broken we have gone forward and no one has outdistanced us. I have reached…not the goal but the spot where the road goes downhill, and involuntarily seek thy hand that we may go down together, that I may press it and say, smiling mournfully, 'So this is all!'

Meanwhile in the dull leisure to which events have condemned me, finding in myself neither strength nor freshness for new labours, I am writing down our memories. Much of that which united us so closely has settled in these pages. I present them to thee. For thee they have a double meaning, the meaning of tombstones on which we meet familiar names.

…And is it not strange to think that had Sonnenberg known how to swim, or had he been drowned then in the Moskva, had he been pulled out not by a Cossak of the Urals but by the soldier of the Apsheronsky infantry, I should not have met Nick or should have met him later, differently, not in that room in our old house, where, smoking cigars on the sly, we entered so deeply into each other's lives and drew strength from each other.

Why I Taught the Source

Autobiographical writing as a rich source for the exploration of European childhood and youth is self evident; in many cases, it is one of the most nuanced ways to understand historical actors' earliest experiences. 1 Such is the case in Russia, where there emerged a new genre of writing on childhood and youth in the middle of the 19th century. Russian authors tended to paint bucolic portraits of their own childhood years on the gentry estate, often spent away from the tyrannical clutches of parental discipline and ensconced instead in the pleasures and freedoms of roaming through domestic corridors and wild gardens. These narratives of Russian childhood and youth often provide poignant examples of how individuals came of age amidst a backdrop of radical insurgence, peasant emancipation, and decades of repression. Many of these narratives, written by members of Russia's first generations of intelligentsia, include descriptions of rebellion against their elders and an attachment to their peers. My Past and Thoughts, written by Alexander Herzen—the first self-proclaimed Russian socialist—fits precisely into this genre of 19th-century Russian writing. It is in this historical context that I use this particular text in my course on Modern Russia.

How I Introduce the Source

My undergraduate class on modern Russia provides an introduction to the history of the tsarist era from the time of Peter the Great in 1682 to the end of the Romanov dynasty in 1917. Over the course of the semester we discuss and debate the nature of autocracy, Russia's relationship to Europe, the emergence of the intelligentsia and radicalism as well as the building of the vast Russian empire. We also concentrate on the everyday lives of rulers, peasants, workers, intellectuals and student radicals, by using primary documents, whether memoirs, poems or political tracts. The course proceeds both chronologically and thematically, with special attention paid to gender, including the subject of this discussion: masculinity and youth.

Reading the Source

An excerpt of Alexander Herzen's memoir My Past and Thoughts is placed in the syllabus about mid-way, during the session where we discuss the emergence of the first generation of Russia's intelligentsia and Russia's relationship to "the West," both imagined and real. We read the text with particular attention to Herzen's own self-conscious telling of his youth and coming of age: both as an intellectual and as a young man. I remind students that this is a story written decades after Herzen's own experiences as a highly influential anti-autocratic author took place.

At the outset, I draw students' attention to the ways in which Herzen's autobiography both conforms to and challenges a larger, emergent 19th-century genre in Russian literature, that is, narratives on childhood and youth. 2 Herzen's writing, on the one hand, tends to reject the notion of a bucolic domestic experience so important in the Lev Tolstoy-inspired "myth" of Russian childhood as a golden age of freedom on the estate. On the other hand, it is through his friendship —alternately Romantic and erotic—with Nikolai Ogarev that Herzen is able to capture some of the joys of childhood and magic of first love. In Herzen's own depictions, it was the oppressiveness of his father's house that ultimately pushed him into the arms of his friend and inspired his coming of age from boyhood to youth. It was this friendship with Nikolai Ogarev—the Russian poet, historian, political activist, and fellow-exile and collaborator of Herzen—which serves as a point of departure for understanding homosociability (i.e., same-sex relationships) and masculinity among Russia's first generation of intelligentsia. While George Mosse argues in Nationalism and Sexuality that romantic friendships between men declined by the early part of the 19th century, young Russian men expressed their affections for one another well into the 19th century and beyond. 3

Another aspect of my introduction involves contextualizing the text in a variety of ways, the literary and the historical. I explain the propensity of 19th-century authors to script their own childhood and youthful experiences in Romantically-tinged language (a practice evidenced in Herzen's descriptions not of his own domestic experiences, but certainly of his friendship with Ogarev). Moreover, by the time we encounter Herzen, everyone is well versed in the social, cultural and political history of Russia up until that point and with the various intellectual struggles within Russian educated society to keep up with the "West," most often embodied in France (but sometimes England).

A close reading of the text provides insight into the ways in which gender roles and norms of sociability are historical in nature and change over time. The logistics of teaching Herzen's text includes a formal, small-group, in-class discussion exercise. About 30 students in all divide themselves into small groups of 5-6 and study the relevant passages included in their course readers. They are instructed to focus on the language and tone of Herzen's depictions of his friend and what it might reveal about the nature of male friendship in 19th-century Russia. (As most of the readings in the course are primary sources, including other autobiographical writings, my students already know how to conduct a close reading of a historical document.) I draw their attention to the role that "Sparrow Hills"—the site of Herzen and Ogarev's boyhood vow of love—has in Herzen's memory. "Flushed and breathless. . . the sun was setting, the cupolas glittered. . . a fresh breeze blew on our faces, we stood leaning against each other and, suddenly embracing, vowed in sight of all Moscow to sacrifice our lives to the struggle we had chosen [toppling the autocracy]. (62)" Through a close reading of these passages, students learn how Herzen's memories of coming of age became intertwined with his love of Ogarev, his loss of childhood innocence, and their commitment to political activism. These passages illustrate what friendship meant for Herzen: it was more powerful than love and its intensity was reflected in the beauty of the natural surroundings. During his youth, male friendship and homosocial relations signaled for Herzen the highest of callings-—more powerful than romantic love. The power of this friendship was only heightened by their frequent outings, where they basked in their connection with the natural surroundings and in their writing.

What emerges from their analyses is a picture of two young boys meeting and declaring their devotion to one another, a devotion that—according to Herzen—included a politically self-conscious desire to overthrow the autocracy together. A particular theme that we examine is the homoerotic language with which students are often unaccustomed. We examine such as passages: "Nick attracted me. . . [there was] something kind, gentle and pensive about him. . . . His heart beat as mine did. . . . With all of the impulsiveness of my nature I attached myself more and more to Nick, while he had a quiet, deep love for me (pages 58-60)." Elsewhere Herzen declares that "I had long loved Nick and I loved him passionately (64)." These descriptions provide us with the opportunity to discuss 19th-century social and gender norms. I explain that closeness between young men was part and parcel of their coming of age experiences.

Reflections

The one real difficulty that I encountered with this exercise was the challenge of getting students to think historically about interpersonal relationships, patterns of sociability, and gender expectations. For many students, the notion of male romantic, expressive friendship as a legitimate topic of historical investigation was a new idea. Interfering with their ability to think historically was a contemporary prejudice against homosexuality. Therefore, it is essential to define "homosociability" and to emphasize it political potential especially among youth who contest the social order.

Rebecca Friedman

Florida International University

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http://www.imagesofempire.com

British Empire and Commonwealth Museum

July 2009

Images of Empire features an enormous collection of digitized images and film clips drawn from the British Empire and Commonwealth Museum's holdings. It also features a link to Film Images, which provides access to a collection of 7,000 films from the Overseas Film and Television Archives. The main Images of Empire website does not list the total size of its holdings, but they are impressive in their geographical and chronological scope.

This collection of photographs and film clips (which are often drawn from private home movies) covers virtually every corner of the formal British Empire as well as independent nations and foreign colonies such as Peru and Mozambique where Britain had considerable informal influence. On the whole, these images, which tend to be less formal than the more official and staged photographs in the RCS Photograph Project, provide an intimate look into virtually every aspect of life in the 20th-century British Empire.

Visitors to Images of Empire have the choice of using its extremely sophisticated search function that permits Boolean searches or browsing the collection through 10 thematic galleries:

• Domestic Life;
• Dress and Adornment;
• Hunting;
• Landscapes and Scenery;
• Portraits;
• Royalty and Chiefs;
• Street Scenes;
• Trade and Industry; and
• Wars and Conflicts.

The series of keyword tags attached to each image are particularly useful in that they can be clicked to return every other image in the collection marked with similar tags. Thus, a photograph of Fijian women and children fishing includes the keywords and sub-keywords: people (children, female), domestic life (child rearing), hunting (fishing), labor (agricultural and rural, women's), landscape and scenery (marine and coastal), trades and professions (fishing and hunting).

The website returns search results as captioned small thumbnails images that can be clicked through to the main image or conveniently enlarged on the fly by "mousing over them." There is also the option of viewing the results as a list or grid, and visitors who register with the website can save their searches to a "lightbox."

From an educational standpoint, the Images of Empire's only significant disappointment is that it appears to be intended primarily as a profit-making venture. The images themselves are watermarked with the Images of Empire copyright, relatively small, and scanned to only 72 dpi. These are sufficient for classroom use, but they are significantly inferior to the high resolution images offered by the RCS Photograph Project. For those wishing to acquire higher quality images there is a detailed licensing price list for a wide variety of media, but there is no discount for non-commercial educational use.

Nevertheless, Images of Empire is an impressive research tool and teaching resource. Its vast collection of images, advanced search options, and sophisticated tagging system provides access to hundreds of pictures and film clips of young people, students, and families that chronicle the changing experiences of childhood under the British Empire. In addition to documenting broad shifts in parenting, labor, schooling, and play over the past century, Images of Empire demonstrates that children played a central role in legitimizing, sustaining, and complicating systems of imperial rule.

Teachers can use images of Indian pageboys at a coronation ceremony, smiling Arab children in British Palestine, African Boy Scouts and Girl Guides in Kenya, a Methodist school for girls in India, a Chinese child freed from domestic slavery, and a British doctor treating a young African child for sleeping sickness to illustrate how imperial photographers used children to depict the British Empire as popular, just, and benevolent.1 In contract, pictures of a young Jamaican boy riding a donkey to market instead of school, a Kikuyu mother picking lice off her daughter's head, and naked and malnourished children in independent Ghana suggest that non-European peoples needed western supervision because they lacked the means to raise their children properly.

Alternatively, the collection also shows that children could be politically dangerous. To illustrate this, teachers can use the photographs of Boy Scouts and regimented Kikuyu boys exercising behind barbed wire in "strategic villages" during the Mau Mau Emergency to ask their students to think about why some young Africans enjoyed the privileges of being Scouts while their peers were confined in prison camps. These sharply contrasting images of voluntary and forced conformity demonstrate that the Kenyan authorities worried that uncontrolled African adolescents were a threat to British imperial rule. (See: African Scouting Teaching Module written by Tim Parsons.)

An equally interesting exercise would be to use the many images of European children in the collection to help students understand the dominant position of westerners in the British Empire. In contrast to pictures of poor, laboring, and impoverished African and Asian children, Images of Empire provides photographs and home movies of British boys and girls enjoying an idyllic childhood replete with attentive servants, exotic pets, comfortably safe houses and compounds, good schools, and loving parents.

In comparing these strikingly different photographic records teachers can ask their students to think about the inherent economic and social advantages of empire and the privileges of western notions of childhood. While imperial photographers often featured African and Asian children in imperial schools, the many images of poor and laboring children in the collection demonstrate that they were a small but fortunate minority.

1 Indian pageboys New Delhi 1911 (00004511), Palestinian children 1942 (00009618), Scouts & Guides, Coast Province 1950 (00006894), Methodist girl's school Mysore 1934 (00010499), Sleeping sickness victim Northern Rhodesia 1950 (0006717), Chinese child freedom from domestic slavery 1930 (0003176).

2 Jamaican boy riding donkey to market 1910 (0007873), Kikuyu mother delousing daughter 1936 (0008409), Naked & malnourished children 1960 Ghana (post-independence) (00008147)

3 3 Kenyan Scouts, Coast Province 1950, (00006893), Kikuyu children drilling in a strategic village 1953 (00001092) (0001090)

4 Indian ayah with son of Methodist missionary 1938 (00010513), Children carried in sedan chair India 1935 (1110367), European child playing w/pet Vervet monkey Uganda 1928 (00002060), Musical chairs at a Kenyan settler garden party 1952 (0002590)

5 Tanganyika students w/microscopes 1950 (00001948), Thin children collecting muddy water Uganda 1959 (00011924)

Tim Parsons

Washington University

Images of Empire features an enormous collection of digitized images and film clips drawn from the British Empire and Commonwealth Museum's holdings.

http://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/rcs_photo_project/homepage.html

Cambridge University Library

July 2009

Hosted by the Cambridge University Library, the current version of The RCS Photograph Project represents the initial steps of an ambitious project to scan, catalogue, and post the nearly 70,000 images in the Royal Commonwealth Society (RCS) library on the internet. The RCS, formerly the Royal Colonial Institute and later the Royal Empire Society, was originally a private association dedicated to promoting imperial interests in the United Kingdom, its overseas possessions and former colonies.

In its current incarnation the RCS is an educational charity working to promote understanding among the peoples of the modern Commonwealth. The RCS Photograph Project features images of life in the former British Empire. The photographs in the main collection date from the 1850s to the 1980s, but most of the online postings were taken between the 1890s and the Second World War.

While one of the project's stated aims is to create a searchable online database of photographs from the collection, at present the website has no search function. Instead, the images are accessible through a series of thematic galleries labeled

• Creating the Empire and Commonwealth;
• Running the Empire and Commonwealth;
• Royal Commonwealth Society;
• Portraits;
• Towns and Cities;
• Daily Life;
• Religion, Belief and Ceremonies;
• Trade, Industry and Agriculture;
• Military; and
• the "Queen Mary Collection" (which refers to a warship, not the sovereign).

Each of these galleries is further divided geographically into Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Browsing these, particularly the daily life listings, produces numerous photographs of children, adolescents, and families from every corner of the British Empire.

At present, The RCS Photograph Project's holdings are much smaller than the Images of Empire collection, but the Cambridge images are scanned at a much higher resolution and are not watermarked. Each is also helpfully annotated with information on the photographer, an estimate of when it was taken, a descriptive caption, and its catalogue number in the Cambridge University Library.

The RCS Photograph Project's greatest virtue is its truly global scope. Collectively, its images allow for the cross-cultural study of childhood at the turn of the 20th century. Teachers can use classroom scenes of physical education at a girls school in Quebec, a Jamaican Catholic elementary school, a Hebrew school on Gibraltar, metal working in Lahore, agricultural training at an elite boys school in Uganda, an Australian bush school, and sewing instruction in Hong Kong to explore the various manifestations of education in the empire. Such an assignment might ask a student to use the images to draw conclusions about the resources various colonies devoted to educating subject populations, the nature of the curriculum in each education system, and the composition of the student body in terms race, class, and gender.

Photographs of children engaged in various forms of labor suggest an interesting counter-point to an education-focused lesson plan. Students might draw further conclusions about the nature and availability of formal education in the empire by comparing and contrasting the school images with photographs of Nigerian girls spinning yarn, Ugandan boys and girls washing clothes, a Malay boy pounding rice, Samoan boys extracting coconut fiber, and English boys from Liverpool preparing to emigrate to Canada. Taken as a whole, these pictures illustrate strikingly the changing nature of childhood and schooling in the subject societies of the British Empire.

Tim Parsons

Washington University

Hosted by the Cambridge University Library, the current version of The RCS Photograph Project represents the initial steps of an ambitious project to scan, catalogue, and post the nearly 70,000 images in the Royal Commonwealth Society (RCS) library on the internet.

"Yahya related to me from Malik from Hisham ibn Urwa that his father, Urwa ibn az-Zubayr made an aqiqa for his male and female children of a sheep each." [Al-Muwatta Hadith, 26:7]

[Legal interpretation of the hadith:] "Malik said, 'What we do about the aqiqa is that if someone makes an aqiqa for his children, he gives a sheep for both male and female. The aqiqa is not obligatory but it is desirable to do it, and people continue to come to us about it. If someone makes an aqiqa for his children, the same rules apply as with all sacrificial animals - one-eyed, emaciated, injured, or sick animals must not be used, and neither the meat or the skin is to be sold. The bones are broken and the family eat the meat and give some of it away as sadaqa. The child is not smeared with any of the blood.'"

Color painting of a kuttab, or primary school in which boys sit on a mat or carpet huddled close together with their writing boards. This image, by 13th century illustrator al-Wasiti (fl. 1237), is from the Maqamat (Assemblies) of al-Hariri (1054-1122 CE), an important figure in Arabic literature. The work is a collection of anecdotes about a picaresque hero, shown in the red robe, who perhaps having just said something outrageous, is shown disputing with the teacher. An interesting feature in several illustrations of kuttabs is the fan suspended from the ceiling, with one of the boys pulling a rope to swing it.

A Separate Place: the Schools P.S. DuPont Built (Wilmington, DE: Hagley Museum and Library, 2003) at http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/hagley-separate-place-packet.pdf, pages 24–26 (accessed April 21, 2009).

Honorable Pierre S. du Pont
1116 du Pont Building
Wilmington, Delaware

Dear Sir:

     Our Teacher has asked us to write you a letter to day, for we all know that you were the one that gave us our New School. Our School is as good as it was when we first came into it. We would like for you to come down, for we have all wishes to see you. We all appreciate our New School Building. In our School we have two wall clocks, an organ, graphonola, pencil sharpner, oil stove for hot lunches, two maps--one of South America, and one of the United States. We have five graduates at State College Dover Delaware--three boys and two girls--Christina Maull, Levata Williams, Cyrus Sparrow, Arthur Ward, Charles Norwood. I am in the Seventh Grade. We have Community Civics, Hygiene, Arithmetic, Geography, History, Language, Reader, Spelling and Industrial Artwork. In Industrial Artwork, we draw, make crepe paper flowers, baskets, etc. I like all of my studies very much and I am proud of all of my books.
     I attended school eight days in September, three in October. I am sorry to say that I have been working to the packing house all summer, but I started to school for good now. I was very sorry that I couldn’t get to School those days I was absent. I hope I wont have have to miss any more days this year. Our teacher is back this year. This makes the fourth year that she has taught our school. Her name is Mrs. Virginia H. Jones. The Primary Room has a new teacher, Miss Laurencetta M. Hicks. We all love both of the teachers.
     We are celebrating (du Pont Day) to night, and have invited all of the Parents. We will have, cake, and ice cream to night.
     We wish that you might live many more years to see what the Delaware Children might accomplish.

A Separate Place: the Schools P.S. DuPont Built (Wilmington, DE: Hagley Museum and Library, 2003) at http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/hagley-separate-place-packet.pdf, page 29. (accessed April 21, 2009).

Two black and white photographs showing before and after pictures of Blocksom's School in Sussex County in rural Delaware. The first photo (taken in 1917) shows the pupils standing outside the original one-room schoolhouse made of wood. In addition to an outhouse and heat provided by a pot-bellied stove. The second photograph (taken in 1925) shows a new and much larger Blocksom's School, made of brick, with indoor toilet, multiple classrooms, and heating.